Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that plays an essential role in embryonic development, particularly in organ development, placenta formation and immune system regulation¹. During pregnancy, adequate levels of vitamin A support the development of the fetus's eyes, heart and lungs¹. Deficiency can lead to maternal anemia, low birth weight and increased susceptibility to infection¹.

B vitamins are essential for maternal and fetal health. Folate (vitamin B9) prevents neural tube defects (NTDs) and birth defects². Vitamin B6 supports protein metabolism, the synthesis of neurotransmitters and the reduction of pregnancy-induced nausea³. Vitamin B12, particularly in its methylcobalamin form, is involved in red blood cell formation, DNA synthesis and neurological development⁴. The vitamin B deficiencies are associated with anemia, pre-eclampsia and skeletal or neuromotor defects in the fetus.

Vitamin D3 is essential for calcium absorption, bone mineralization and immune regulation. During pregnancy, adequate levels of vitamin D are essential to prevent complications such as gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia and low birth weight⁵. Deficiency, which is common, has been associated with an increased risk of bacterial vaginosisand fetal skeletal anomalies⁵. Therefore, vitamin D3 supplementation could reduce inflammation, support early placental development and improve neonatal health outcomes⁵.

Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant that protects cell membranes from oxidative damage⁶. During pregnancy, it improves uterine blood flow and contributes to the development of the fetal brain and cardiovascular system^7,8. A deficiency is associated with an increased risk of miscarriage, premature birth, pre-eclampsia and intra-uterine growth restriction⁹. Adequate intake reduces oxidative stress, contributing to a healthy pregnancy and fetal development.

Zinc is essential for DNA and RNA synthesis, cell division and protein production, processescrucial for fetal growth and development^10,11. It plays a role in modulating the immune system, reducingthe risk of infections during pregnancy. Deficiency has been associated with adverse outcomes, including low birth weight at, high blood pressure, pre-eclampsia and stillbirth¹². Zinc also contributes to the repair ofuterine tissues after childbirth¹³.

Copper is essential for hemoglobin formation and the development of the fetal brain, heart, blood vessels,skeletal system and immune system¹⁴. It also acts as a cofactor for antioxidant enzymes, protecting against oxidative stress during pregnancy. Adequate copper intake supports iron metabolism, reducingthe risk of maternal anemia and improving oxygen supply to the fetus¹⁵.

Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, which regulate fetal growth and neurocognitive development¹⁶. Deficiency during pregnancy can lead to hypothyroidism, intellectual deficiencies and developmental delays in children^16,17. Adequate iodine intake prevents cretinism and supports maternal thyroid function, reducing the risk of pregnancy complications such as goiter and preeclampsia¹⁸.

Iron is essential for hemoglobin production, oxygen transport and cellular energy. Pregnancy increasesiron requirements due to the expansion of maternal plasma volume and fetal needs, particularly during thethird trimester, when the fetus stores iron for the first few months of life¹⁹. Iron deficiency can lead tomaternal anaemia, low birth weight, premature delivery and impaired cognitive development andphysical growth in infants¹⁹.

DHA and EPA are omega-3 fatty acids essential for fetal brain and retinal development. Maternal levels of these fatty acids decrease during pregnancy, and inadequate intake is associated with suboptimal fetal development²⁰. Adequate intake supports fetal growth, reduces the risk of premature birth and improvescognitive function in the child^20,21. Omega-3 supplementation also promotes maternal cardiovascular healthand may alleviate some symptoms associated with postpartum depression²².